Catholic Church - Revision history

KJV: /* Bibliography */ removed Template:Colend - tried to transfer from Wikipedia but not working here

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Bibliography: removed Template:Colend - tried to transfer from Wikipedia but not working here

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	* Wilken, Robert (2004). "Christianity". in Hitchcock, Susan Tyler; Esposito, John. ''Geography of Religion.'' National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-7922-7317-6.		* Wilken, Robert (2004). "Christianity". in Hitchcock, Susan Tyler; Esposito, John. ''Geography of Religion.'' National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-7922-7317-6.
	* [[Thomas Woods\|Woods Jr, Thomas]] (2005). ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization.'' Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-89526-038-7.		* [[Thomas Woods\|Woods Jr, Thomas]] (2005). ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization.'' Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
-	~~{{Colend}}~~

	==External links==		==External links==

Nick at 06:13, 27 August 2016

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	===Contemporary===		===Contemporary===
-	~~{{Disputed-section\|date=September 2010}}~~
	[[File:President and Mrs. Reagan meet Pope John Paul II 1982.jpg\|thumb\|[[Pope John Paul II]] with U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]].]]		[[File:President and Mrs. Reagan meet Pope John Paul II 1982.jpg\|thumb\|[[Pope John Paul II]] with U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]].]]
	The [[Second Vatican Council]] initiated by [[Pope John XXIII]] in 1962 was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".<sup>[]</sup> It led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, a re-focusing of its mission and a redefinition of [[Catholic Church and ecumenism\|ecumenism]], particularly dialogue with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], and Protestant denominations.<sup>[]</sup>		The [[Second Vatican Council]] initiated by [[Pope John XXIII]] in 1962 was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".<sup>[]</sup> It led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, a re-focusing of its mission and a redefinition of [[Catholic Church and ecumenism\|ecumenism]], particularly dialogue with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], and Protestant denominations.<sup>[]</sup>

-	Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Church since then. A so-called [[Spirit of Vatican II]] followed the council, influenced by exponents of ''[[Nouvelle Théologie]]'' such as [[Karl Rahner]]. Some dissident liberals such as [[Hans Küng]] claimed Vatican II had not gone far enough.<sup>[]</sup> On the other hand, [[Traditionalist Catholics]] represented by figures such as [[Marcel Lefebvre]] strongly criticized the council, arguing that it defiled the sanctity of the [[Latin Mass]], promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions" and compromised historical Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by the theologians of the publication ''[[Communio]]'' (including [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) hold that the council was ultimately positive but that there were abuses in interpretation.~~{{Citation needed\|date=May 2010}}~~	+	Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Church since then. A so-called [[Spirit of Vatican II]] followed the council, influenced by exponents of ''[[Nouvelle Théologie]]'' such as [[Karl Rahner]]. Some dissident liberals such as [[Hans Küng]] claimed Vatican II had not gone far enough.<sup>[]</sup> On the other hand, [[Traditionalist Catholics]] represented by figures such as [[Marcel Lefebvre]] strongly criticized the council, arguing that it defiled the sanctity of the [[Latin Mass]], promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions" and compromised historical Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by the theologians of the publication ''[[Communio]]'' (including [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) hold that the council was ultimately positive but that there were abuses in interpretation.

	Teachings of the popes, such as the encyclicals ''[[Humanae Vitae]]'' and ''[[Evangelium Vitae]]'', have opposed [[contraception]]<sup>[]</sup> and [[Catholic Church and abortion\|abortion]] respectively, describing these views as part of a "[[culture of life]]".<sup>[]</sup>		Teachings of the popes, such as the encyclicals ''[[Humanae Vitae]]'' and ''[[Evangelium Vitae]]'', have opposed [[contraception]]<sup>[]</sup> and [[Catholic Church and abortion\|abortion]] respectively, describing these views as part of a "[[culture of life]]".<sup>[]</sup>
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	Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to [[Hell in Christian beliefs#Roman Catholicism\|hell]], an everlasting separation from God.<sup>[]</sup> The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God.<sup>[]</sup> No one is [[predestination\|predestined]] to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.<sup>[]</sup> Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved.<sup>[]</sup> Some Catholic theologians have speculated that the souls of unbaptised infants who die in [[original sin]] are assigned to [[limbo]] although this is not an official doctrine of the Church.<sup>[]</sup>		Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to [[Hell in Christian beliefs#Roman Catholicism\|hell]], an everlasting separation from God.<sup>[]</sup> The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God.<sup>[]</sup> No one is [[predestination\|predestined]] to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.<sup>[]</sup> Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved.<sup>[]</sup> Some Catholic theologians have speculated that the souls of unbaptised infants who die in [[original sin]] are assigned to [[limbo]] although this is not an official doctrine of the Church.<sup>[]</sup>

-	Catholic beliefs are summarized in the [[Nicene Creed]] and detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup> Based on the promises of Christ in the [[Gospel]]s, the Church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected [[Infallibility of the Church\|infallibly]] from falling into doctrinal error.<sup>[]</sup> The Catholic Church teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through [[Books of the Bible\|Sacred Scripture]], [[Sacred Tradition]] and the [[Magisterium]].~~{{Citation needed\|date=March 2010}}~~ Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 book [[Bible#Christian canons\|Catholic Bible]]. This is made up of the 46 books found in the ancient Greek version of the [[Old Testament]]—known as the [[Septuagint]]<sup>[]</sup>—and the 27 [[New Testament]] writings first found in the [[Codex Vaticanus\|Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209]] and listed in [[Athanasius of Alexandria\|Athanasius]]' [[Easter letter\|Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter]].<sup>[]</sup> The 73-book Catholic Bible contains the [[Deuterocanonical books\|Deuterocanonicals]], books not in the modern [[Hebrew Bible]] and not upheld as [[Biblical canon\|canonical]] by most Protestants.<sup>[]</sup> The [[Development of the Christian Biblical canon\|process of determining which books were to be considered part of the canon]] took many centuries and was not finally resolved in the Catholic Church until the Council of Trent.	+	Catholic beliefs are summarized in the [[Nicene Creed]] and detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup> Based on the promises of Christ in the [[Gospel]]s, the Church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected [[Infallibility of the Church\|infallibly]] from falling into doctrinal error.<sup>[]</sup> The Catholic Church teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through [[Books of the Bible\|Sacred Scripture]], [[Sacred Tradition]] and the [[Magisterium]]. Sacred Scripture consists of the 73 book [[Bible#Christian canons\|Catholic Bible]]. This is made up of the 46 books found in the ancient Greek version of the [[Old Testament]]—known as the [[Septuagint]]<sup>[]</sup>—and the 27 [[New Testament]] writings first found in the [[Codex Vaticanus\|Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209]] and listed in [[Athanasius of Alexandria\|Athanasius]]' [[Easter letter\|Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter]].<sup>[]</sup> The 73-book Catholic Bible contains the [[Deuterocanonical books\|Deuterocanonicals]], books not in the modern [[Hebrew Bible]] and not upheld as [[Biblical canon\|canonical]] by most Protestants.<sup>[]</sup> The [[Development of the Christian Biblical canon\|process of determining which books were to be considered part of the canon]] took many centuries and was not finally resolved in the Catholic Church until the Council of Trent.

	Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.<sup>[]</sup> Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith" (''depositum fidei''). These are in turn interpreted by the [[Magisterium]] (from ''magister'', Latin for "teacher"), the Church's teaching authority, which is exercised by the pope and the College of Bishops in union with the pope.<sup>[]</sup>		Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.<sup>[]</sup> Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith" (''depositum fidei''). These are in turn interpreted by the [[Magisterium]] (from ''magister'', Latin for "teacher"), the Church's teaching authority, which is exercised by the pope and the College of Bishops in union with the pope.<sup>[]</sup>
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	===Membership===		===Membership===
-	~~{{See\|Catholicism by country}}~~
-
	Church membership in 2007 was 1.147 billion people,<sup>[]</sup> increasing from the 1950 figure of 437 million<sup>[]</sup> and the 1970 figure of 654 million.<v> On 31 December 2008, membership was 1.166 billion, an increase of 11.54% over the same date in 2000, only slightly greater than the rate of increase of the world population (10.77%). The increase was 33.02% in Africa, but only 1.17% in Europe. It was 15.91% in Asia, 11.39% in Oceania, and 10.93% in the Americas. As a result, Catholics were 17.77% of the total population in Africa, 63.10% in the Americas, 3.05% in Asia, 39.97% in Europe, 26.21% in Oceania, and 17.40% of the world population. Of the world's Catholics, the proportion living in Africa grew from 12.44% in 2000 to 14.84% in 2008, while those living in Europe fell from 26.81% to 24.31%.<sup>[]</sup>		Church membership in 2007 was 1.147 billion people,<sup>[]</sup> increasing from the 1950 figure of 437 million<sup>[]</sup> and the 1970 figure of 654 million.<v> On 31 December 2008, membership was 1.166 billion, an increase of 11.54% over the same date in 2000, only slightly greater than the rate of increase of the world population (10.77%). The increase was 33.02% in Africa, but only 1.17% in Europe. It was 15.91% in Asia, 11.39% in Oceania, and 10.93% in the Americas. As a result, Catholics were 17.77% of the total population in Africa, 63.10% in the Americas, 3.05% in Asia, 39.97% in Europe, 26.21% in Oceania, and 17.40% of the world population. Of the world's Catholics, the proportion living in Africa grew from 12.44% in 2000 to 14.84% in 2008, while those living in Europe fell from 26.81% to 24.31%.<sup>[]</sup>
	Membership of the Catholic Church is attained through baptism.<sup>[]</sup> If someone [[actus formalis defectionis ab Ecclesia catholica\|formally leaves the Church]], that fact is noted in the register of the person's baptism.		Membership of the Catholic Church is attained through baptism.<sup>[]</sup> If someone [[actus formalis defectionis ab Ecclesia catholica\|formally leaves the Church]], that fact is noted in the register of the person's baptism.
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	==Bibliography==		==Bibliography==
-	~~{{Colbegin}}~~
-	* {{cite web\|title=Canon 42\|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM\|publisher=Vatican\|work=1983 [[Canon law (Catholic Church)\|Code of Canon Law]]\|accessdate=9 March 2008}}
-	* {{cite web\|title=''Catechism of the Catholic Church''\|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana\|year=1994\|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm\|accessdate=8 February 2008}}
	* Barry, Rev. Msgr. John F (2001). ''One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief.'' Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D. ISBN 0-8215-2207-8.		* Barry, Rev. Msgr. John F (2001). ''One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief.'' Gerard F. Baumbach, Ed.D. ISBN 0-8215-2207-8.
	* [[Susan Wise Bauer\|Bauer, Susan Wise]] (2010). ''The History of Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade.'' Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05975-5.		* [[Susan Wise Bauer\|Bauer, Susan Wise]] (2010). ''The History of Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade.'' Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05975-5.

Beza 1598 at 08:31, 5 March 2016

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	[[Category:Apostolic Sees]]		[[Category:Apostolic Sees]]
	[[Category:Chalcedonianism]]		[[Category:Chalcedonianism]]
		+
		+	{{Donate}}

Nick: /* Traditions of worship */

2011-01-24T14:31:57Z

Traditions of worship

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	==Traditions of worship==		==Traditions of worship==
-	{{See ~~also\|~~Catholic liturgy\|Sacraments of the Catholic Church}}	+
-	[[~~File~~:SFXBasillicaMainAltar.jpg\|thumbnail\|Original high altar of the [[Basilica of St. Francis Xavier]] in [[Dyersville, Iowa]], with a free-standing altar in the foreground.]]Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the Catholic Church, reflecting historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in beliefs.<sup>[]</sup> The most commonly used liturgy is the [[Roman Rite]], but even in the [[Latin Rite\|Latin Catholic Church]] a few other [[Latin liturgical rites\|rites]] are in use, and the Eastern Catholic Churches have distinct rites. Two forms of the Roman Rite are authorized at present: that of the post-1969 editions of the [[Roman Missal]] ([[Mass of Paul VI]]), which is now the ordinary form of the rite and is celebrated mostly in the vernacular, i.e., the language of the people; and that of the 1962 edition (the ''[[Tridentine Mass]]''), now an [[extraordinary form of the Roman Rite\|extraordinary form]].<sup>[]</sup> The [[Trento\|Tridentine]] Mass, so called because standardized by [[Pope Pius V]] after the [[Council of Trent]] in the 16th century, was the ordinary form of the Roman-Rite Mass until superseded in 1969 by the Roman Missal of Paul VI; its continued use, in the version found in the 1962 edition of the Missal, is authorized by the 2007 motu proprio ''[[Summorum Pontificum]]''.	+	''See Also [[Catholic liturgy]] [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church]]''
		+
		+	[[Image:SFXBasillicaMainAltar.jpg\|thumbnail\|Original high altar of the [[Basilica of St. Francis Xavier]] in [[Dyersville, Iowa]], with a free-standing altar in the foreground.]]Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the Catholic Church, reflecting historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in beliefs.<sup>[]</sup> The most commonly used liturgy is the [[Roman Rite]], but even in the [[Latin Rite\|Latin Catholic Church]] a few other [[Latin liturgical rites\|rites]] are in use, and the Eastern Catholic Churches have distinct rites. Two forms of the Roman Rite are authorized at present: that of the post-1969 editions of the [[Roman Missal]] ([[Mass of Paul VI]]), which is now the ordinary form of the rite and is celebrated mostly in the vernacular, i.e., the language of the people; and that of the 1962 edition (the ''[[Tridentine Mass]]''), now an [[extraordinary form of the Roman Rite\|extraordinary form]].<sup>[]</sup> The [[Trento\|Tridentine]] Mass, so called because standardized by [[Pope Pius V]] after the [[Council of Trent]] in the 16th century, was the ordinary form of the Roman-Rite Mass until superseded in 1969 by the Roman Missal of Paul VI; its continued use, in the version found in the 1962 edition of the Missal, is authorized by the 2007 motu proprio ''[[Summorum Pontificum]]''.

	In the United States, certain "Anglican Use" parishes use a variation of the Roman rite that retains many aspects of the Anglican liturgical rites. In 1980, Pope John Paul II issued a [[Pastoral Provision\|pastoral provision]] that allows establishment of personal parishes in which members of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)\|Episcopal Church]] (the U.S. branch of the Anglican Communion) who join the Catholic Church retain many aspects of Anglican liturgical rites as a variation of the Roman rite. Such "Anglican Use" parishes exist only in the United States. Implementation is still awaited of the authorization granted in 2009 for the creation wherever appropriate of [[Anglicanorum Coetibus\|ordinariates]] for [[Anglicanism\|Anglicans]] who enter into communion with the Church and who may then use a rite that incorporates elements of Anglican tradition.<sup>[]</sup> Other Western rites (non-Roman) include the [[Ambrosian Rite]] and the [[Mozarabic Rite]]. The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the [[Byzantine rite]], the [[Alexandrian Rite\|Alexandrian]] or Coptic rite, the [[West Syrian Rite\|Syriac rite]], the [[Armenian rite]], the Maronite rite, and the [[Chaldean rite]].		In the United States, certain "Anglican Use" parishes use a variation of the Roman rite that retains many aspects of the Anglican liturgical rites. In 1980, Pope John Paul II issued a [[Pastoral Provision\|pastoral provision]] that allows establishment of personal parishes in which members of the [[Episcopal Church (United States)\|Episcopal Church]] (the U.S. branch of the Anglican Communion) who join the Catholic Church retain many aspects of Anglican liturgical rites as a variation of the Roman rite. Such "Anglican Use" parishes exist only in the United States. Implementation is still awaited of the authorization granted in 2009 for the creation wherever appropriate of [[Anglicanorum Coetibus\|ordinariates]] for [[Anglicanism\|Anglicans]] who enter into communion with the Church and who may then use a rite that incorporates elements of Anglican tradition.<sup>[]</sup> Other Western rites (non-Roman) include the [[Ambrosian Rite]] and the [[Mozarabic Rite]]. The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the [[Byzantine rite]], the [[Alexandrian Rite\|Alexandrian]] or Coptic rite, the [[West Syrian Rite\|Syriac rite]], the [[Armenian rite]], the Maronite rite, and the [[Chaldean rite]].

Nick at 23:28, 23 January 2011

2011-01-23T23:28:28Z

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	''This article is about the church in communion with the [[See of Rome]] For other uses, see [[Catholic Church (disambiguation)]].''		''This article is about the church in communion with the [[See of Rome]] For other uses, see [[Catholic Church (disambiguation)]].''

-	The '''Catholic Church''', also known as the '''Roman Catholic Church''', is the world's largest [[Christianity\|Christian]] ~~church~~, claiming over a billion members world wide.<sup>[]</sup> Its spiritual head is the [[Pope]]. The Church sees its mission as spreading the [[Good news (Christianity)\|gospel]] of [[Jesus Christ\|Christ]], administering its [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church\|sacraments]] and exercising charity.	+	The '''Catholic Church''', also known as the '''Roman Catholic Church''', is the world's largest [[Christianity\|Christian]] cult, claiming over a billion members world wide.<sup>[]</sup> Its spiritual head is the [[Pope]]. The Church sees its mission as spreading the [[Good news (Christianity)\|gospel]] of [[Jesus Christ\|Christ]], administering its [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church\|sacraments]] and exercising charity.

	The Catholic Church is one of the oldest religious institutions in the world and has played a prominent role in the history of [[Western civilisation]].<sup>[]</sup> It teaches that its [[Bishop (Catholic Church)\|bishops]] are [[apostolic succession\|successors]] of Christ's [[Apostle (Christian)\|apostles]] and that by guidance of the [[Holy Spirit]] it can define its [[dogma]]tic [[#Doctrine\|doctrines]] [[Infallibility of the Church\|infallibly]].		The Catholic Church is one of the oldest religious institutions in the world and has played a prominent role in the history of [[Western civilisation]].<sup>[]</sup> It teaches that its [[Bishop (Catholic Church)\|bishops]] are [[apostolic succession\|successors]] of Christ's [[Apostle (Christian)\|apostles]] and that by guidance of the [[Holy Spirit]] it can define its [[dogma]]tic [[#Doctrine\|doctrines]] [[Infallibility of the Church\|infallibly]].
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	''See Also [[Roman Catholic (term)]]''		''See Also [[Roman Catholic (term)]]''

-	The Greek word καθολικός (''katholikos'') means "universal" or "general" and is equivalent to καθόλου (''katholou''), a contraction of the phrase κατὰ ὅλου (''kata holou''), "according to the whole".<sup>[]</sup> The word was first used to describe the Church in the early 2nd century.<sup>[]</sup> Since the [[East-West Schism]] of 1054, the churches that remained in communion with the [[See of Rome]] (the diocese of Rome and its bishop, the Pope, the primal patriarch) have been known as "Catholic", while the Eastern churches that rejected the pope's authority have generally been known as "Orthodox" or "Eastern Orthodox".<sup>[]</sup> Following the [[Protestant Reformation\|Reformation]] in the 16th century, the Church "in communion with the Bishop of Rome" used the term "Catholic" to distinguish itself from the various [[Protestant]] churches that split off.<sup>[]</sup> The name "Catholic Church" appears in the title of the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].''<sup>[]</sup> It is also the term that [[Pope Paul VI\|Paul VI]] used when signing the sixteen documents of the Second Vatican Council.<v> Church documents both of the Holy See<sup>[]</sup> and of certain [[episcopal conference]]s<sup>[]</sup> occasionally refer to the Church by the name "Roman Catholic Church". In the Catechism of Pope Pius X the Church is called "Roman".<sup>[]</sup>	+	The Greek word καθολικός (''katholikos'') means "universal" or "general" and is equivalent to καθόλου (''katholou''), a contraction of the phrase κατὰ ὅλου (''kata holou''), "according to the whole".<sup>[]</sup> The word was first used to describe the Christian Church in the early 2nd century.<sup>[]</sup> Since the [[East-West Schism]] of [[1054 AD\|1054]], the churches that remained in communion with the [[See of Rome]] (the diocese of Rome and its bishop, the Pope, the primal patriarch) have been known as "Catholic", while the Eastern churches that rejected the pope's authority have generally been known as "Orthodox" or "Eastern Orthodox".<sup>[]</sup> Following the [[Protestant Reformation\|Reformation]] in the 16th century, the Church "in communion with the Bishop of Rome" used the term "Catholic" to distinguish itself from the various [[Protestant]] churches that split off.<sup>[]</sup> The name "Catholic Church" appears in the title of the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].''<sup>[]</sup> It is also the term that [[Pope Paul VI\|Paul VI]] used when signing the sixteen documents of the Second Vatican Council.<sup>[]</sup> Church documents both of the Holy See<sup>[]</sup> and of certain [[episcopal conference]]s<sup>[]</sup> occasionally refer to the Church by the name "Roman Catholic Church". In the Catechism of Pope Pius X the Church is called "Roman".<sup>[]</sup>

	==History==		==History==

Nick: /* Doctrine */

2011-01-23T23:25:14Z

Doctrine

Show changes

Nick: /* Middle Ages */

2011-01-23T23:22:31Z

Middle Ages

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	[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg\|thumb\|right\|<centre>'''Pope Gregory the Great'''</centre>]]		[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg\|thumb\|right\|<centre>'''Pope Gregory the Great'''</centre>]]

-	By the time of the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], many Germanic barbarian tribes had converted to Christianity, but most of them (the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Vandals]]) had adopted it in the form of [[Arianism]], a teaching that had since been declared a heresy by the Catholic Church.<sup>[]</sup> When these conquering peoples established kingdoms on what had been territory of the Roman Empire, the Arian controversy became a subject of religious discord between the ruling Germanic Arians and the subjected Catholic Romans.<sup>[]</sup> Unlike the other barbarian kings, [[Clovis I]], the [[Franks\|Frankish]] ruler, converted in 497 to orthodox Catholicism rather than Arianism, thereby allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries, strengthening the position of the Franks.<sup>[]</sup> Some other Germanic kingdoms eventually followed his lead (the Visigoths in Spain<sup>[]</sup> in 589, and the Lombards in Italy gradually during the 7th century). Beginning in the 6th century, European [[Christian monasticism\|monasteries]] followed the structure of the ''[[Rule of St Benedict]]'',<sup>[]</sup> becoming spiritual centers with workshops for the arts and crafts, [[scriptorium\|scriptoria]] and libraries, and agricultural centers in remote regions.<sup>[]</sup> By the end of the century [[Pope Gregory the Great]] initiated administrative reforms and the [[Gregorian mission]]s to evangelize Britain;<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 7th century Muslim armies had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean posing a threat to western Christendom.<sup>[]</sup>	+	By the time of the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], many Germanic barbarian tribes had converted to Christianity, but most of them (the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Vandals]]) had adopted it in the form of [[Arianism]], a teaching that had since been declared a heresy by the Catholic Church.<sup>[]</sup> When these conquering peoples established kingdoms on what had been territory of the Roman Empire, the Arian controversy became a subject of religious discord between the ruling Germanic Arians and the subjected Catholic Romans.<sup>[]</sup> Unlike the other barbarian kings, [[Clovis I]], the [[Franks\|Frankish]] ruler, converted in [[497 AD\|497]] to orthodox Catholicism rather than Arianism, thereby allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries, strengthening the position of the Franks.<sup>[]</sup> Some other Germanic kingdoms eventually followed his lead (the Visigoths in Spain<sup>[]</sup> in 589, and the Lombards in Italy gradually during the 7th century). Beginning in the 6th century, European [[Christian monasticism\|monasteries]] followed the structure of the ''[[Rule of St Benedict]]'',<sup>[]</sup> becoming spiritual centers with workshops for the arts and crafts, [[scriptorium\|scriptoria]] and libraries, and agricultural centers in remote regions.<sup>[]</sup> By the end of the century [[Pope Gregory the Great]] initiated administrative reforms and the [[Gregorian mission]]s to evangelize Britain;<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 7th century Muslim armies had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean posing a threat to western Christendom.<sup>[]</sup>

	The [[Carolingian dynasty\|Carolingian kings]] strengthened the relationship between kings and the papacy: in 754 Pippin the Younger was crowned in a lavish ceremony (including [[anointing]]) by [[Pope Stephen II]]. Pippin then vanquished the Lombards and added more territory to the papal state. When [[Charlemagne]] came to the throne he quickly consolidated his power,<sup>[]</sup> and by 782 he was considered the strongest of the western kings with the strongest sense of Christian mission.<sup>[]</sup> He received a papal coronation in Rome in 800,<sup>[]</sup> and he interpreted his role as protector of the church with rights of intervention.<sup>[]</sup> After his death, however, the degree with which a ruler had the right to intervene with the papacy was treated in an inconsistent manner.<sup>[]</sup>		The [[Carolingian dynasty\|Carolingian kings]] strengthened the relationship between kings and the papacy: in 754 Pippin the Younger was crowned in a lavish ceremony (including [[anointing]]) by [[Pope Stephen II]]. Pippin then vanquished the Lombards and added more territory to the papal state. When [[Charlemagne]] came to the throne he quickly consolidated his power,<sup>[]</sup> and by 782 he was considered the strongest of the western kings with the strongest sense of Christian mission.<sup>[]</sup> He received a papal coronation in Rome in 800,<sup>[]</sup> and he interpreted his role as protector of the church with rights of intervention.<sup>[]</sup> After his death, however, the degree with which a ruler had the right to intervene with the papacy was treated in an inconsistent manner.<sup>[]</sup>
	[[File:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png\|left\|thumb\|180px\|Great Schism with former borders in 1054]]		[[File:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png\|left\|thumb\|180px\|Great Schism with former borders in 1054]]

-	In Bulgaria, the invention of the [[Cyrillic]] alphabet in the 9th century by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] established a vernacular liturgy.<sup>[]</sup> In the 8th century, [[Byzantine Iconoclasm\|iconoclasm]], the destruction of religious images, initiated a rift with the eastern church.<sup>[]</sup> The 9th century conflicts over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Byzantine-controlled southern Italy, Bulgarian missions, led to further disagreements that created the [[East–West Schism]] which is generally considered to have become formalized in 1054 although there is no single date on which the schism started.<sup>[]</sup> After the schism, the eastern side came to be called the [[Orthodox Church]], while the West, which remained in communion with the Pope, retained the name Catholic.<sup>[]</sup> Efforts to mend the schism at the [[Second Council of Lyon]] in 1274 and the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439 were unsuccessful.<~~ref name="Bokenkotter140"~~/>	+	In Bulgaria, the invention of the [[Cyrillic]] alphabet in the 9th century by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] established a vernacular liturgy.<sup>[]</sup> In the 8th century, [[Byzantine Iconoclasm\|iconoclasm]], the destruction of religious images, initiated a rift with the eastern church.<sup>[]</sup> The 9th century conflicts over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Byzantine-controlled southern Italy, Bulgarian missions, led to further disagreements that created the [[East–West Schism]] which is generally considered to have become formalized in 1054 although there is no single date on which the schism started.<sup>[]</sup> After the schism, the eastern side came to be called the [[Orthodox Church]], while the West, which remained in communion with the Pope, retained the name Catholic.<sup>[]</sup> Efforts to mend the schism at the [[Second Council of Lyon]] in 1274 and the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439 were unsuccessful.<sup>[]</sup>

-	The [[Cluniac reform]] of monasteries sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.<~~ref name="Duffy88"~~>~~Duffy, pp. 88–89.~~</~~ref~~> The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. In 1059 the [[College of Cardinals\|college of cardinals]] was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under [[Pope Gregory VII]], erupted into the [[Investiture Controversy]] between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the [[Concordat of Worms]] in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with [[Canon law\|Church law]].<~~ref~~>~~Noble, pp. 286–287~~</~~ref~~> By the early 14th century a centralized Church organization had been established, a Latin speaking culture was prevalent, the clergy were literate and celibacy was required.<~~ref~~>~~MacCulloch, ''The Reformation'', pp. 26-27~~</~~ref~~>	+	The [[Cluniac reform]] of monasteries sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.<sup>[]</sup> The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. In 1059 the [[College of Cardinals\|college of cardinals]] was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under [[Pope Gregory VII]], erupted into the [[Investiture Controversy]] between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the [[Concordat of Worms]] in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with [[Canon law\|Church law]].<sup>[]</sup> By the early 14th century a centralized Church organization had been established, a Latin speaking culture was prevalent, the clergy were literate and celibacy was required.<sup>[]</sup>
-	[[File:CouncilofClermont.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Colored painting showing a large congregation of bishops listening to the Pope \|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]] (1095); the Pope announced the launch of a Holy War between Christians and Islam. In an impassioned speech he urged all good Christians to wrest the Holy Land 'from the wicked race and subject it to yourselves' - those who died on the expedition would earn immediate remission of sins. The First Crusade had begun.<~~ref~~>~~Robert Bartlett, The Normans, BBC TV~~</~~ref~~>]]	+	[[File:CouncilofClermont.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Colored painting showing a large congregation of bishops listening to the Pope \|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]] (1095); the Pope announced the launch of a Holy War between Christians and Islam. In an impassioned speech he urged all good Christians to wrest the Holy Land 'from the wicked race and subject it to yourselves' - those who died on the expedition would earn immediate remission of sins. The First Crusade had begun.<sup>[]</sup>]]
-	In 1095, [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]] emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos\|Alexius I]] appealed to [[Pope Urban II]] for help against renewed [[Byzantine–Seljuk Wars\|Muslim invasions]],<~~ref name="rileysmith"~~>~~Riley-Smith, p. 8~~</~~ref~~> which caused Urban to launch the [[First Crusade]] aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the [[Holy Land]] to Christian control.<~~ref name="Bokenkotter140"~~>~~Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141~~</~~ref~~> The crusades saw the formation of various [[military order]]s such as the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Knights Hospitaller]], and the [[Teutonic Knights]].<~~ref name="Norman p62-66"~~>~~Norman, pp. 62–66~~</~~ref~~> In 1208, after they were accused of murdering a [[Pierre de Castelnau\|papal legate]],<~~ref~~>[~~[Henry Charles Lea~~]],'' A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Volume I'' (1888), p. 145, quote: "The murder of the legate Pierre de Castelnau sent a thrill of horror throughout Christendom like that caused by the assassination of Becket thirty-eight years before. Of its details, however, the accounts are so contradictory that it is impossible to speak of it with precision."</~~ref~~> [[Pope Innocent III]] declared the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Catharism\|Cathars]], a gnostic Christian sect in [[Languedoc]].<~~ref~~>Malcolm Barber, ''The Cathars'' p1. Longman, ISBN 0-582-25661-5, quote: "Catharism was the greatest heretical challenge faced by the Catholic Church in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries - their success in persuading large numbers of Christians in the West that they had solved the problems [~~posed by the existence of evil~~]~~, shook the Catholic hierarchy to its very core, and provoked a series of reactions more extreme than any previously contemplated."~~</~~ref~~> Up to a million people were killed<~~ref~~>[~~[John M. Robertson~~]], "A Short History of Christianity" (1902), pp. 253-54, quote: "Begun in 1209, the Albigensian crusades outlasted Innocent III...It has been reckoned that up to a million of all ages and both sexes were slain."</~~ref~~> in a conflict that combined both religious and political struggles.<~~ref~~>Laurence Wade Marvin. ''The Occitan War'' p1. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-87240-5, quote, "This war quickly mutated into a struggle over political control of the region, something its originator, Pope Innocent III, never intended."</~~ref~~> To root out those with Cathar sympathies, [[Pope Gregory IX\|Gregory IX]] instituted the [[Papal Inquisition]] in 1231.<~~ref~~>~~Morris, p. 214~~</~~ref~~>	+	In 1095, [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]] emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos\|Alexius I]] appealed to [[Pope Urban II]] for help against renewed [[Byzantine–Seljuk Wars\|Muslim invasions]],<sup>[]</sup> which caused Urban to launch the [[First Crusade]] aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the [[Holy Land]] to Christian control.<sup>[]</sup> The crusades saw the formation of various [[military order]]s such as the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Knights Hospitaller]], and the [[Teutonic Knights]].<sup>[]</sup> In 1208, after they were accused of murdering a [[Pierre de Castelnau\|papal legate]],<sup>[]</sup> [[Pope Innocent III]] declared the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Catharism\|Cathars]], a gnostic Christian sect in [[Languedoc]].<sup>[]</sup> Up to a million people were killed<sup>[]</sup> in a conflict that combined both religious and political struggles.<sup>[]</sup> To root out those with Cathar sympathies, [[Pope Gregory IX\|Gregory IX]] instituted the [[Papal Inquisition]] in 1231.<sup>[]</sup>

-	[[Mendicant orders]] were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic\|Dominic de Guzmán]], which brought [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)\|consecrated religious life]] into urban settings.<~~ref name="LeGoff87"~~>~~Le Goff, p. 87~~</~~ref~~> These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into [[Medieval university\|universities]].<~~ref name="Woods44"~~>~~Woods, pp. 44–48~~</~~ref~~> [[scholasticism\|Scholastic]] theologians such as the Dominican [[Thomas Aquinas]] studied and taught at such universities, and his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of [[Aristotle\|Aristotelian]] thought and Christianity.<~~ref name="Bokenkotter158"~~>~~Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159~~</~~ref~~>	+	[[Mendicant orders]] were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic\|Dominic de Guzmán]], which brought [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)\|consecrated religious life]] into urban settings.<sup>[]</sup> These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into [[Medieval university\|universities]].<sup>[]</sup> [[scholasticism\|Scholastic]] theologians such as the Dominican [[Thomas Aquinas]] studied and taught at such universities, and his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of [[Aristotle\|Aristotelian]] thought and Christianity.<sup>[]</sup>

-	The Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art, overseeing the rise of [[Romanesque art\|Romanesque]], [[Gothic art\|Gothic]] and [[Renaissance art\|Renaissance]] styles of art and architecture.<~~ref name="Woods122"~~>~~Woods, pp. 115–27.~~</~~ref~~> Renaissance artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci\|da Vinci]], [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini\|Bernini]], [[Sandro Botticelli\|Botticelli]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Caravaggio]], and [[Titian]], were among a multitude of artists sponsored by the Church.<~~ref name="Duffy133"~~>~~Duffy, p. 133.~~</~~ref~~> In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<~~ref name="Hall100"~~>~~Hall, p. 100.~~</~~ref~~> and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European [[classical music]], and its many derivatives.<~~ref name="Murray45"~~>~~Murray, p. 45.~~</~~ref~~>	+	The Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art, overseeing the rise of [[Romanesque art\|Romanesque]], [[Gothic art\|Gothic]] and [[Renaissance art\|Renaissance]] styles of art and architecture.<sup>[]</sup> Renaissance artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci\|da Vinci]], [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini\|Bernini]], [[Sandro Botticelli\|Botticelli]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Caravaggio]], and [[Titian]], were among a multitude of artists sponsored by the Church.<sup>[]</sup> In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<sup>[]</sup> and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European [[classical music]], and its many derivatives.<sup>[]</sup>

	===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===		===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===

Nick: /* Reformation and Counter-Reformation */

2011-01-23T23:20:51Z

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

←Older revision		Revision as of 23:20, 23 January 2011
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	===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===		===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===
-	In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V\|Clement V]] moving to Avignon in 1305.<sup>[]</sup> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,<sup>[]</sup but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism\|Western schism]] with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<sup>[]</sup> The Western Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] with [[Pope Martin V\|Martin V]] declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".<sup>[]</sup> In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England [[John Wycliffe]] wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to [[Bohemia]], where in [[Prague]], [[Jan Hus]] embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.<sup>[]</sup>	+	In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V\|Clement V]] moving to Avignon in 1305.<sup>[]</sup> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,<sup>[]</sup> but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism\|Western schism]] with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<sup>[]</sup> The Western Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] with [[Pope Martin V\|Martin V]] declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".<sup>[]</sup> In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England [[John Wycliffe]] wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to [[Bohemia]], where in [[Prague]], [[Jan Hus]] embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.<sup>[]</sup>
		+
	[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg\|thumb\|'''[[Desiderius Erasmus]]''']]		[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg\|thumb\|'''[[Desiderius Erasmus]]''']]
	The Council of Constance, the [[Council of Florence\|Council of Basel]] and the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran\|Fifth Lateran Council]] each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.<sup>[]</sup> In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, [[Pope Pius II]] forbade further appeal for a general council.<sup>[]</sup> Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo [[House of Borgia\|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were elected to the papacy,<sup>[]</sup> followed by [[Pope Julius II]] who presented himself as a secular prince.<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 16th century, the publication of ''[[The Praise of Folly\|In Praise of Folly]]'', written by [[Desiderius Erasmus\|Erasmus]], "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."<sup>[]</sup>		The Council of Constance, the [[Council of Florence\|Council of Basel]] and the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran\|Fifth Lateran Council]] each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.<sup>[]</sup> In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, [[Pope Pius II]] forbade further appeal for a general council.<sup>[]</sup> Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo [[House of Borgia\|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were elected to the papacy,<sup>[]</sup> followed by [[Pope Julius II]] who presented himself as a secular prince.<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 16th century, the publication of ''[[The Praise of Folly\|In Praise of Folly]]'', written by [[Desiderius Erasmus\|Erasmus]], "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."<sup>[]</sup>

Nick: /* Reformation and Counter-Reformation */

2011-01-23T23:20:27Z

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

←Older revision		Revision as of 23:20, 23 January 2011
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	===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===		===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===
-	In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V\|Clement V]] moving to Avignon in 1305.<~~ref name="Duffy122"~~>~~Duffy, p. 122~~</~~ref~~> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,<~~ref name="McManners232"~~>~~Morris, p. 232~~</~~ref>~~ but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism\|Western schism]] with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<~~ref name="McManners232"~~/> The Western Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] with [[Pope Martin V\|Martin V]] declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".<~~ref name="Restorationpp37-38"~~>~~MacCulloch, ''The Restoration'', pp. 37-38~~</~~ref~~> In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England [[John Wycliffe]] wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to [[Bohemia]], where in [[Prague]], [[Jan Hus]] embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.<~~ref~~>~~MacCulloch, ''The Restoration'', pp. 34-36~~</~~ref~~>	+	In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V\|Clement V]] moving to Avignon in 1305.<sup>[]</sup> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,<sup>[]</sup but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism\|Western schism]] with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<sup>[]</sup> The Western Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] with [[Pope Martin V\|Martin V]] declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".<sup>[]</sup> In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England [[John Wycliffe]] wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to [[Bohemia]], where in [[Prague]], [[Jan Hus]] embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.<sup>[]</sup>
	[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg\|thumb\|'''[[Desiderius Erasmus]]''']]		[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg\|thumb\|'''[[Desiderius Erasmus]]''']]
-	The Council of Constance, the [[Council of Florence\|Council of Basel]] and the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran\|Fifth Lateran Council]] each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.<~~ref~~>~~Bokenkotter, p. 201~~</~~ref~~> In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, [[Pope Pius II]] forbade further appeal for a general council.<~~ref name="Restorationpp37-38"~~/> Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo [[House of Borgia\|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were elected to the papacy,<~~ref name="Duffy149"~~>~~Duffy, p. 149~~</~~ref~~> followed by [[Pope Julius II]] who presented himself as a secular prince.<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 16th century, the publication of ''[[The Praise of Folly\|In Praise of Folly]]'', written by [[Desiderius Erasmus\|Erasmus]], "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."<sup>[]</sup>	+	The Council of Constance, the [[Council of Florence\|Council of Basel]] and the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran\|Fifth Lateran Council]] each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.<sup>[]</sup> In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, [[Pope Pius II]] forbade further appeal for a general council.<sup>[]</sup> Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo [[House of Borgia\|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were elected to the papacy,<sup>[]</sup> followed by [[Pope Julius II]] who presented himself as a secular prince.<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 16th century, the publication of ''[[The Praise of Folly\|In Praise of Folly]]'', written by [[Desiderius Erasmus\|Erasmus]], "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."<sup>[]</sup>

	In Germany in 1517, [[Martin Luther]] sent his ''[[The Ninety-Five Theses\|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' to several bishops.<sup>[]</sup> His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of [[indulgence]]s.<sup>[]</sup> In Switzerland, [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the [[Protestant Reformation]].<sup>[]</sup>		In Germany in 1517, [[Martin Luther]] sent his ''[[The Ninety-Five Theses\|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' to several bishops.<sup>[]</sup> His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of [[indulgence]]s.<sup>[]</sup> In Switzerland, [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the [[Protestant Reformation]].<sup>[]</sup>

Nick at 23:19, 23 January 2011

2011-01-23T23:19:45Z

Show changes

←Older revision		Revision as of 23:22, 23 January 2011
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	[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg\|thumb\|right\|<centre>'''Pope Gregory the Great'''</centre>]]		[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg\|thumb\|right\|<centre>'''Pope Gregory the Great'''</centre>]]

-	By the time of the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], many Germanic barbarian tribes had converted to Christianity, but most of them (the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Vandals]]) had adopted it in the form of [[Arianism]], a teaching that had since been declared a heresy by the Catholic Church.<sup>[]</sup> When these conquering peoples established kingdoms on what had been territory of the Roman Empire, the Arian controversy became a subject of religious discord between the ruling Germanic Arians and the subjected Catholic Romans.<sup>[]</sup> Unlike the other barbarian kings, [[Clovis I]], the [[Franks\|Frankish]] ruler, converted in 497 to orthodox Catholicism rather than Arianism, thereby allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries, strengthening the position of the Franks.<sup>[]</sup> Some other Germanic kingdoms eventually followed his lead (the Visigoths in Spain<sup>[]</sup> in 589, and the Lombards in Italy gradually during the 7th century). Beginning in the 6th century, European [[Christian monasticism\|monasteries]] followed the structure of the ''[[Rule of St Benedict]]'',<sup>[]</sup> becoming spiritual centers with workshops for the arts and crafts, [[scriptorium\|scriptoria]] and libraries, and agricultural centers in remote regions.<sup>[]</sup> By the end of the century [[Pope Gregory the Great]] initiated administrative reforms and the [[Gregorian mission]]s to evangelize Britain;<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 7th century Muslim armies had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean posing a threat to western Christendom.<sup>[]</sup>	+	By the time of the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], many Germanic barbarian tribes had converted to Christianity, but most of them (the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Vandals]]) had adopted it in the form of [[Arianism]], a teaching that had since been declared a heresy by the Catholic Church.<sup>[]</sup> When these conquering peoples established kingdoms on what had been territory of the Roman Empire, the Arian controversy became a subject of religious discord between the ruling Germanic Arians and the subjected Catholic Romans.<sup>[]</sup> Unlike the other barbarian kings, [[Clovis I]], the [[Franks\|Frankish]] ruler, converted in [[497 AD\|497]] to orthodox Catholicism rather than Arianism, thereby allying himself with the papacy and the monasteries, strengthening the position of the Franks.<sup>[]</sup> Some other Germanic kingdoms eventually followed his lead (the Visigoths in Spain<sup>[]</sup> in 589, and the Lombards in Italy gradually during the 7th century). Beginning in the 6th century, European [[Christian monasticism\|monasteries]] followed the structure of the ''[[Rule of St Benedict]]'',<sup>[]</sup> becoming spiritual centers with workshops for the arts and crafts, [[scriptorium\|scriptoria]] and libraries, and agricultural centers in remote regions.<sup>[]</sup> By the end of the century [[Pope Gregory the Great]] initiated administrative reforms and the [[Gregorian mission]]s to evangelize Britain;<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 7th century Muslim armies had conquered much of the southern Mediterranean posing a threat to western Christendom.<sup>[]</sup>

	The [[Carolingian dynasty\|Carolingian kings]] strengthened the relationship between kings and the papacy: in 754 Pippin the Younger was crowned in a lavish ceremony (including [[anointing]]) by [[Pope Stephen II]]. Pippin then vanquished the Lombards and added more territory to the papal state. When [[Charlemagne]] came to the throne he quickly consolidated his power,<sup>[]</sup> and by 782 he was considered the strongest of the western kings with the strongest sense of Christian mission.<sup>[]</sup> He received a papal coronation in Rome in 800,<sup>[]</sup> and he interpreted his role as protector of the church with rights of intervention.<sup>[]</sup> After his death, however, the degree with which a ruler had the right to intervene with the papacy was treated in an inconsistent manner.<sup>[]</sup>		The [[Carolingian dynasty\|Carolingian kings]] strengthened the relationship between kings and the papacy: in 754 Pippin the Younger was crowned in a lavish ceremony (including [[anointing]]) by [[Pope Stephen II]]. Pippin then vanquished the Lombards and added more territory to the papal state. When [[Charlemagne]] came to the throne he quickly consolidated his power,<sup>[]</sup> and by 782 he was considered the strongest of the western kings with the strongest sense of Christian mission.<sup>[]</sup> He received a papal coronation in Rome in 800,<sup>[]</sup> and he interpreted his role as protector of the church with rights of intervention.<sup>[]</sup> After his death, however, the degree with which a ruler had the right to intervene with the papacy was treated in an inconsistent manner.<sup>[]</sup>
	[[File:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png\|left\|thumb\|180px\|Great Schism with former borders in 1054]]		[[File:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png\|left\|thumb\|180px\|Great Schism with former borders in 1054]]

-	In Bulgaria, the invention of the [[Cyrillic]] alphabet in the 9th century by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] established a vernacular liturgy.<sup>[]</sup> In the 8th century, [[Byzantine Iconoclasm\|iconoclasm]], the destruction of religious images, initiated a rift with the eastern church.<sup>[]</sup> The 9th century conflicts over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Byzantine-controlled southern Italy, Bulgarian missions, led to further disagreements that created the [[East–West Schism]] which is generally considered to have become formalized in 1054 although there is no single date on which the schism started.<sup>[]</sup> After the schism, the eastern side came to be called the [[Orthodox Church]], while the West, which remained in communion with the Pope, retained the name Catholic.<sup>[]</sup> Efforts to mend the schism at the [[Second Council of Lyon]] in 1274 and the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439 were unsuccessful.<~~ref name="Bokenkotter140"~~/>	+	In Bulgaria, the invention of the [[Cyrillic]] alphabet in the 9th century by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] established a vernacular liturgy.<sup>[]</sup> In the 8th century, [[Byzantine Iconoclasm\|iconoclasm]], the destruction of religious images, initiated a rift with the eastern church.<sup>[]</sup> The 9th century conflicts over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Byzantine-controlled southern Italy, Bulgarian missions, led to further disagreements that created the [[East–West Schism]] which is generally considered to have become formalized in 1054 although there is no single date on which the schism started.<sup>[]</sup> After the schism, the eastern side came to be called the [[Orthodox Church]], while the West, which remained in communion with the Pope, retained the name Catholic.<sup>[]</sup> Efforts to mend the schism at the [[Second Council of Lyon]] in 1274 and the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439 were unsuccessful.<sup>[]</sup>

-	The [[Cluniac reform]] of monasteries sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.<~~ref name="Duffy88"~~>~~Duffy, pp. 88–89.~~</~~ref~~> The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. In 1059 the [[College of Cardinals\|college of cardinals]] was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under [[Pope Gregory VII]], erupted into the [[Investiture Controversy]] between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the [[Concordat of Worms]] in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with [[Canon law\|Church law]].<~~ref~~>~~Noble, pp. 286–287~~</~~ref~~> By the early 14th century a centralized Church organization had been established, a Latin speaking culture was prevalent, the clergy were literate and celibacy was required.<~~ref~~>~~MacCulloch, ''The Reformation'', pp. 26-27~~</~~ref~~>	+	The [[Cluniac reform]] of monasteries sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.<sup>[]</sup> The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. In 1059 the [[College of Cardinals\|college of cardinals]] was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under [[Pope Gregory VII]], erupted into the [[Investiture Controversy]] between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the [[Concordat of Worms]] in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with [[Canon law\|Church law]].<sup>[]</sup> By the early 14th century a centralized Church organization had been established, a Latin speaking culture was prevalent, the clergy were literate and celibacy was required.<sup>[]</sup>
-	[[File:CouncilofClermont.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Colored painting showing a large congregation of bishops listening to the Pope \|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]] (1095); the Pope announced the launch of a Holy War between Christians and Islam. In an impassioned speech he urged all good Christians to wrest the Holy Land 'from the wicked race and subject it to yourselves' - those who died on the expedition would earn immediate remission of sins. The First Crusade had begun.<~~ref~~>~~Robert Bartlett, The Normans, BBC TV~~</~~ref~~>]]	+	[[File:CouncilofClermont.jpg\|thumb\|alt=Colored painting showing a large congregation of bishops listening to the Pope \|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]] (1095); the Pope announced the launch of a Holy War between Christians and Islam. In an impassioned speech he urged all good Christians to wrest the Holy Land 'from the wicked race and subject it to yourselves' - those who died on the expedition would earn immediate remission of sins. The First Crusade had begun.<sup>[]</sup>]]
-	In 1095, [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]] emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos\|Alexius I]] appealed to [[Pope Urban II]] for help against renewed [[Byzantine–Seljuk Wars\|Muslim invasions]],<~~ref name="rileysmith"~~>~~Riley-Smith, p. 8~~</~~ref~~> which caused Urban to launch the [[First Crusade]] aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the [[Holy Land]] to Christian control.<~~ref name="Bokenkotter140"~~>~~Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141~~</~~ref~~> The crusades saw the formation of various [[military order]]s such as the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Knights Hospitaller]], and the [[Teutonic Knights]].<~~ref name="Norman p62-66"~~>~~Norman, pp. 62–66~~</~~ref~~> In 1208, after they were accused of murdering a [[Pierre de Castelnau\|papal legate]],<~~ref~~>[~~[Henry Charles Lea~~]],'' A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Volume I'' (1888), p. 145, quote: "The murder of the legate Pierre de Castelnau sent a thrill of horror throughout Christendom like that caused by the assassination of Becket thirty-eight years before. Of its details, however, the accounts are so contradictory that it is impossible to speak of it with precision."</~~ref~~> [[Pope Innocent III]] declared the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Catharism\|Cathars]], a gnostic Christian sect in [[Languedoc]].<~~ref~~>Malcolm Barber, ''The Cathars'' p1. Longman, ISBN 0-582-25661-5, quote: "Catharism was the greatest heretical challenge faced by the Catholic Church in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries - their success in persuading large numbers of Christians in the West that they had solved the problems [~~posed by the existence of evil~~]~~, shook the Catholic hierarchy to its very core, and provoked a series of reactions more extreme than any previously contemplated."~~</~~ref~~> Up to a million people were killed<~~ref~~>[~~[John M. Robertson~~]], "A Short History of Christianity" (1902), pp. 253-54, quote: "Begun in 1209, the Albigensian crusades outlasted Innocent III...It has been reckoned that up to a million of all ages and both sexes were slain."</~~ref~~> in a conflict that combined both religious and political struggles.<~~ref~~>Laurence Wade Marvin. ''The Occitan War'' p1. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-87240-5, quote, "This war quickly mutated into a struggle over political control of the region, something its originator, Pope Innocent III, never intended."</~~ref~~> To root out those with Cathar sympathies, [[Pope Gregory IX\|Gregory IX]] instituted the [[Papal Inquisition]] in 1231.<~~ref~~>~~Morris, p. 214~~</~~ref~~>	+	In 1095, [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]] emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos\|Alexius I]] appealed to [[Pope Urban II]] for help against renewed [[Byzantine–Seljuk Wars\|Muslim invasions]],<sup>[]</sup> which caused Urban to launch the [[First Crusade]] aimed at aiding the Byzantine Empire and returning the [[Holy Land]] to Christian control.<sup>[]</sup> The crusades saw the formation of various [[military order]]s such as the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Knights Hospitaller]], and the [[Teutonic Knights]].<sup>[]</sup> In 1208, after they were accused of murdering a [[Pierre de Castelnau\|papal legate]],<sup>[]</sup> [[Pope Innocent III]] declared the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Catharism\|Cathars]], a gnostic Christian sect in [[Languedoc]].<sup>[]</sup> Up to a million people were killed<sup>[]</sup> in a conflict that combined both religious and political struggles.<sup>[]</sup> To root out those with Cathar sympathies, [[Pope Gregory IX\|Gregory IX]] instituted the [[Papal Inquisition]] in 1231.<sup>[]</sup>

-	[[Mendicant orders]] were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic\|Dominic de Guzmán]], which brought [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)\|consecrated religious life]] into urban settings.<~~ref name="LeGoff87"~~>~~Le Goff, p. 87~~</~~ref~~> These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into [[Medieval university\|universities]].<~~ref name="Woods44"~~>~~Woods, pp. 44–48~~</~~ref~~> [[scholasticism\|Scholastic]] theologians such as the Dominican [[Thomas Aquinas]] studied and taught at such universities, and his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of [[Aristotle\|Aristotelian]] thought and Christianity.<~~ref name="Bokenkotter158"~~>~~Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159~~</~~ref~~>	+	[[Mendicant orders]] were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic\|Dominic de Guzmán]], which brought [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)\|consecrated religious life]] into urban settings.<sup>[]</sup> These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into [[Medieval university\|universities]].<sup>[]</sup> [[scholasticism\|Scholastic]] theologians such as the Dominican [[Thomas Aquinas]] studied and taught at such universities, and his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of [[Aristotle\|Aristotelian]] thought and Christianity.<sup>[]</sup>

-	The Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art, overseeing the rise of [[Romanesque art\|Romanesque]], [[Gothic art\|Gothic]] and [[Renaissance art\|Renaissance]] styles of art and architecture.<~~ref name="Woods122"~~>~~Woods, pp. 115–27.~~</~~ref~~> Renaissance artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci\|da Vinci]], [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini\|Bernini]], [[Sandro Botticelli\|Botticelli]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Caravaggio]], and [[Titian]], were among a multitude of artists sponsored by the Church.<~~ref name="Duffy133"~~>~~Duffy, p. 133.~~</~~ref~~> In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<~~ref name="Hall100"~~>~~Hall, p. 100.~~</~~ref~~> and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European [[classical music]], and its many derivatives.<~~ref name="Murray45"~~>~~Murray, p. 45.~~</~~ref~~>	+	The Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art, overseeing the rise of [[Romanesque art\|Romanesque]], [[Gothic art\|Gothic]] and [[Renaissance art\|Renaissance]] styles of art and architecture.<sup>[]</sup> Renaissance artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci\|da Vinci]], [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini\|Bernini]], [[Sandro Botticelli\|Botticelli]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Tintoretto]], [[Caravaggio]], and [[Titian]], were among a multitude of artists sponsored by the Church.<sup>[]</sup> In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<sup>[]</sup> and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European [[classical music]], and its many derivatives.<sup>[]</sup>

	===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===		===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===

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	===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===		===Reformation and Counter-Reformation===
-	In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V\|Clement V]] moving to Avignon in 1305.<~~ref name="Duffy122"~~>~~Duffy, p. 122~~</~~ref~~> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,<~~ref name="McManners232"~~>~~Morris, p. 232~~</~~ref>~~ but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism\|Western schism]] with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<~~ref name="McManners232"~~/> The Western Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] with [[Pope Martin V\|Martin V]] declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".<~~ref name="Restorationpp37-38"~~>~~MacCulloch, ''The Restoration'', pp. 37-38~~</~~ref~~> In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England [[John Wycliffe]] wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to [[Bohemia]], where in [[Prague]], [[Jan Hus]] embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.<~~ref~~>~~MacCulloch, ''The Restoration'', pp. 34-36~~</~~ref~~>	+	In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with [[Pope Clement V\|Clement V]] moving to Avignon in 1305.<sup>[]</sup> The [[Avignon Papacy]] ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome,<sup>[]</sup but was followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long [[Western Schism\|Western schism]] with claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa.<sup>[]</sup> The Western Schism resulted in a call for a "collective authority rather than the single primacy of the bishop of Rome" which gained support, but was overturned in 1417 at the [[Council of Constance]] with [[Pope Martin V\|Martin V]] declared pope, and a decree issued that the Pope received authority "immediately from Christ".<sup>[]</sup> In reaction to the lack of authority created by the Great Schism, in England [[John Wycliffe]] wrote that the "eternal existing Church" was to be found in the Bible and available to all. His work was brought to [[Bohemia]], where in [[Prague]], [[Jan Hus]] embraced Wycliffe's ideas and gained wide support. At the Council of Constance, Hus was charged with heresy and ordered to be executed by burning at the stake.<sup>[]</sup>
	[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg\|thumb\|'''[[Desiderius Erasmus]]''']]		[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg\|thumb\|'''[[Desiderius Erasmus]]''']]
-	The Council of Constance, the [[Council of Florence\|Council of Basel]] and the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran\|Fifth Lateran Council]] each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.<~~ref~~>~~Bokenkotter, p. 201~~</~~ref~~> In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, [[Pope Pius II]] forbade further appeal for a general council.<~~ref name="Restorationpp37-38"~~/> Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo [[House of Borgia\|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were elected to the papacy,<~~ref name="Duffy149"~~>~~Duffy, p. 149~~</~~ref~~> followed by [[Pope Julius II]] who presented himself as a secular prince.<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 16th century, the publication of ''[[The Praise of Folly\|In Praise of Folly]]'', written by [[Desiderius Erasmus\|Erasmus]], "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."<sup>[]</sup>	+	The Council of Constance, the [[Council of Florence\|Council of Basel]] and the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran\|Fifth Lateran Council]] each attempted to reform internal Church abuses, with the "popular and persistently recommended" creation of a council.<sup>[]</sup> In 1460, following the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, [[Pope Pius II]] forbade further appeal for a general council.<sup>[]</sup> Consequently worldly men such as Roderigo [[House of Borgia\|Borgia]] ([[Pope Alexander VI]]) were elected to the papacy,<sup>[]</sup> followed by [[Pope Julius II]] who presented himself as a secular prince.<sup>[]</sup> Early in the 16th century, the publication of ''[[The Praise of Folly\|In Praise of Folly]]'', written by [[Desiderius Erasmus\|Erasmus]], "included some biting criticisms of the unreformed Church."<sup>[]</sup>

	In Germany in 1517, [[Martin Luther]] sent his ''[[The Ninety-Five Theses\|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' to several bishops.<sup>[]</sup> His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of [[indulgence]]s.<sup>[]</sup> In Switzerland, [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the [[Protestant Reformation]].<sup>[]</sup>		In Germany in 1517, [[Martin Luther]] sent his ''[[The Ninety-Five Theses\|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' to several bishops.<sup>[]</sup> His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of [[indulgence]]s.<sup>[]</sup> In Switzerland, [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the European movement called the [[Protestant Reformation]].<sup>[]</sup>