Part of speech - Revision history

Nick at 06:27, 13 February 2025

2025-02-13T06:27:39Z

←Older revision		Revision as of 06:27, 13 February 2025
Line 1:		Line 1:
	In [[grammar]], a '''part of speech''' (also a '''word class''', a '''lexical class''', or a '''lexical category''') is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely ''lexical items''), which is generally defined by the [[syntactic]] or [[morphology (linguistics)\|morphological]] behaviour of the lexical item in question. Common linguistic categories include ''noun'' and ''verb'', among others. There are [[open class word\|open word classes]], which constantly acquire new members, and [[closed class word\|closed word classes]], which acquire new members infrequently if at all.		In [[grammar]], a '''part of speech''' (also a '''word class''', a '''lexical class''', or a '''lexical category''') is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely ''lexical items''), which is generally defined by the [[syntactic]] or [[morphology (linguistics)\|morphological]] behaviour of the lexical item in question. Common linguistic categories include ''noun'' and ''verb'', among others. There are [[open class word\|open word classes]], which constantly acquire new members, and [[closed class word\|closed word classes]], which acquire new members infrequently if at all.

-	Almost all languages have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages.<sup>[]</sup> For example, [[Japanese language\|Japanese]] has as many as three classes of [[Japanese adjectives\|adjective]]s where [[English language\|English]] has one; [[Chinese languages\|Chinese]], [[Korean language\|Korean]] and Japanese have [[classifier (linguistics)\|nominal classifier]]s whereas European languages do not; many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives and verbs (see [[stative verbs]]) or adjectives and nouns, etc. This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties entails that analysis be done for each individual language. Nevertheless the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.~~<sup>[]</sup>~~	+	Almost all languages have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages.<sup>[]</sup> For example, [[Japanese language\|Japanese]] has as many as three classes of [[Japanese adjectives\|adjective]]s where [[English language\|English]] has one; [[Chinese languages\|Chinese]], [[Korean language\|Korean]] and Japanese have [[classifier (linguistics)\|nominal classifier]]s whereas European languages do not; many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives and verbs (see [[stative verbs]]) or adjectives and nouns, etc. This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties entails that analysis be done for each individual language. Nevertheless the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.

	==History==		==History==
-	The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the [[history of linguistics]].<sup>[]</sup> In the ''[[Nirukta]]'', written in the 5th or 6th century BC, the [[Sanskrit grammarian]] [[Yāska]] defined four main categories of words:~~<sup>[]</sup>~~	+	The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the [[history of linguistics]].<sup>[]</sup> In the ''[[Nirukta]]'', written in the 5th or 6th century BC, the [[Sanskrit grammarian]] [[Yāska]] defined four main categories of words:

	# nāma – [[noun]]s or substantives		# nāma – [[noun]]s or substantives
Line 12:		Line 12:
	These four were grouped into two large classes: [[inflection\|inflected]] (nouns and verbs) and uninflected (pre-verbs and particles).		These four were grouped into two large classes: [[inflection\|inflected]] (nouns and verbs) and uninflected (pre-verbs and particles).

-	The [[Tamil language\|Tamil grammarian]] [[Tolkappian]] in his work [[Tolkappiyam]] dated variously between 1st CE and 10th CE, classifies words~~<sup>[]</sup>~~ in Tamil as	+	The [[Tamil language\|Tamil grammarian]] [[Tolkappian]] in his work [[Tolkappiyam]] dated variously between 1st CE and 10th CE, classifies words in Tamil as
	#''peyar'' (noun),		#''peyar'' (noun),
	#''vinai'' (verb),		#''vinai'' (verb),
Line 18:		Line 18:
	# ''uri'' (word that further qualifies a noun or verb)		# ''uri'' (word that further qualifies a noun or verb)

-	A century or two after the work of Nirukta, the [[Classical Greece\|Greek]] scholar [[Plato]] wrote in the [[Cratylus (dialogue)\|''Cratylus'' dialog]] that "... sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [''rhēma''] and nouns [''ónoma'']".~~<sup>[]</sup>~~ Another class, "conjunctions" (covering [[Grammatical conjunction\|conjunction]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and the [[article (grammar)\|article]]), was later added by [[Aristotle]].	+	A century or two after the work of Nirukta, the [[Classical Greece\|Greek]] scholar [[Plato]] wrote in the [[Cratylus (dialogue)\|''Cratylus'' dialog]] that "... sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [''rhēma''] and nouns [''ónoma'']". Another class, "conjunctions" (covering [[Grammatical conjunction\|conjunction]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and the [[article (grammar)\|article]]), was later added by [[Aristotle]].

	By the end of the 2nd century BC, the classification scheme had been expanded into eight categories, seen in the ''[[Art of Grammar]]'' (Τέχνη Γραμματική) :		By the end of the 2nd century BC, the classification scheme had been expanded into eight categories, seen in the ''[[Art of Grammar]]'' (Τέχνη Γραμματική) :
Line 31:		Line 31:
	# [[Grammatical conjunction\|Conjunction]]: a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation		# [[Grammatical conjunction\|Conjunction]]: a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation

-	The [[Latin grammar]]ian [[Priscian]] ([[floruit\|fl.]] [[500 CE]]) modified the above eightfold system, substituting "[[interjection]]" for "article". It wasn't until 1767 that the [[adjective]] was taken as a separate class.~~<sup>[]</sup>~~	+	The [[Latin grammar]]ian [[Priscian]] ([[floruit\|fl.]] [[500 CE]]) modified the above eightfold system, substituting "[[interjection]]" for "article". It wasn't until 1767 that the [[adjective]] was taken as a separate class.

	Traditional English grammar is patterned after the European tradition above, and is still taught in schools and used in [[dictionaries]]. It names eight parts of speech: [[noun]], [[verb]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], [[pronoun]], [[preposition]], [[Grammatical conjunction\|conjunction]], and [[interjection]] (sometimes called an exclamation).		Traditional English grammar is patterned after the European tradition above, and is still taught in schools and used in [[dictionaries]]. It names eight parts of speech: [[noun]], [[verb]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], [[pronoun]], [[preposition]], [[Grammatical conjunction\|conjunction]], and [[interjection]] (sometimes called an exclamation).
Line 38:		Line 38:
	Since the Greek grammarians of 2nd century BCE, parts of speech have been defined by [[morphology (linguistics)\|morphological]], [[syntax\|syntactic]] and [[semantics\|semantic]] criteria. However, there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that can apply to all languages, or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme should be based.		Since the Greek grammarians of 2nd century BCE, parts of speech have been defined by [[morphology (linguistics)\|morphological]], [[syntax\|syntactic]] and [[semantics\|semantic]] criteria. However, there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that can apply to all languages, or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme should be based.

-	[[Linguists]] recognize that the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and artificial.<sup>[]</sup> For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,~~<sup>[]</sup>~~	+	[[Linguists]] recognize that the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and artificial.<sup>[]</sup> For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,

	==English==		==English==
Line 53:		Line 53:
	Although these are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and sub-categories based on function.		Although these are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and sub-categories based on function.

-	The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are labelled form classes as well. This is because prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term form is used because it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.~~<sup>[]</sup>~~	+	The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are labelled form classes as well. This is because prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term form is used because it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.

	Neither written nor spoken English generally [[marker (linguistics)\|marks]] words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be understood in the context of the sentence. Words like ''neigh'', ''break'', ''outlaw'', ''laser'', ''microwave'' and ''telephone'' might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although ''-ly'' is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in ''-ly'' (''-wise'' is another common adverb marker) and not all words ending in ''-ly'' are adverbs. For instance, ''tomorrow'', ''fast'', ''very'' can all be adverbs, while ''early'', ''friendly'', ''ugly'' are all adjectives (though ''early'' can also function as an adverb).		Neither written nor spoken English generally [[marker (linguistics)\|marks]] words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be understood in the context of the sentence. Words like ''neigh'', ''break'', ''outlaw'', ''laser'', ''microwave'' and ''telephone'' might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although ''-ly'' is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in ''-ly'' (''-wise'' is another common adverb marker) and not all words ending in ''-ly'' are adverbs. For instance, ''tomorrow'', ''fast'', ''very'' can all be adverbs, while ''early'', ''friendly'', ''ugly'' are all adjectives (though ''early'' can also function as an adverb).
Line 61:		Line 61:
	==Functional classification==		==Functional classification==
	The study of [[linguistics]] has expanded the understanding of lexical categories in various languages and allowed for better classifying words by function. Common lexical categories in English by function may include:		The study of [[linguistics]] has expanded the understanding of lexical categories in various languages and allowed for better classifying words by function. Common lexical categories in English by function may include:
-	* '''[[Open word classes]]:'''~~<!-- These open/closed class classifications are valid for English, but not other languages, such as Japanese (where verbs are closed, pronouns are open) -->~~	+	* '''[[Open word classes]]:'''
	**[[adjective]]s		**[[adjective]]s
	**[[adverb]]s		**[[adverb]]s

Nick: /* External links */

2016-07-31T02:57:46Z

External links

←Older revision		Revision as of 02:57, 31 July 2016
Line 104:		Line 104:
	[[Category:Parts of speech\| ]]		[[Category:Parts of speech\| ]]

-	[[Image:paypal.jpg\|center\|150px\|thumb\|[http://textus-receptus.com/donate.html Please click here to donate to Textus Receptus. All money donated will go to pay staff to add information to the page and server costs]]]	+	{{Donate}}

Beza 1598 at 07:45, 5 March 2016

2016-03-05T07:45:08Z

←Older revision		Revision as of 07:45, 5 March 2016
Line 103:		Line 103:
	[[Category:Grammar]]		[[Category:Grammar]]
	[[Category:Parts of speech\| ]]		[[Category:Parts of speech\| ]]
		+
		+	[[Image:paypal.jpg\|center\|150px\|thumb\|[http://textus-receptus.com/donate.html Please click here to donate to Textus Receptus. All money donated will go to pay staff to add information to the page and server costs]]]

Beza 1598: /* See also */

2016-03-05T07:44:42Z

Beza 1598: /* See also */

2016-03-05T07:13:22Z

Beza 1598: /* See also */

2016-03-05T06:58:28Z

Nick: Protected "Part of speech" [edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed]

2012-08-13T08:13:02Z

Protected "Part of speech" [edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed]

←Older revision

Revision as of 08:13, 13 August 2012

Nick: /* External links */

2012-08-13T08:12:50Z

External links

←Older revision		Revision as of 08:12, 13 August 2012
Line 92:		Line 92:

	==External links==		==External links==
-	~~{{Wiktionary\|part of speech}}~~	+
-	~~{{Wiktionary\|Category:Parts of speech}}~~	+
	*[http://wakish.info/the-eight-classes-grouping-all-words-in-the-english-language/ The Eight Classes Grouping All Words In The English Language]		*[http://wakish.info/the-eight-classes-grouping-all-words-in-the-english-language/ The Eight Classes Grouping All Words In The English Language]
	*[http://wakish.info/how-to-classify-words-into-parts-of-speech/ How To Classify Words Into Parts Of Speech]		*[http://wakish.info/how-to-classify-words-into-parts-of-speech/ How To Classify Words Into Parts Of Speech]

Nick: New page: In grammar, a '''part of speech''' (also a '''word class''', a '''lexical class''', or a '''lexical category''') is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely ''lexical items'')...

2012-01-10T10:16:06Z

New page: In grammar, a '''part of speech''' (also a '''word class''', a '''lexical class''', or a '''lexical category''') is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely ''lexical items'')...

New page

In [[grammar]], a '''part of speech''' (also a '''word class''', a '''lexical class''', or a '''lexical category''') is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely ''lexical items''), which is generally defined by the [[syntactic]] or [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] behaviour of the lexical item in question. Common linguistic categories include ''noun'' and ''verb'', among others. There are [[open class word|open word classes]], which constantly acquire new members, and [[closed class word|closed word classes]], which acquire new members infrequently if at all.

Almost all languages have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages.[] For example, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] has as many as three classes of [[Japanese adjectives|adjective]]s where [[English language|English]] has one; [[Chinese languages|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]] and Japanese have [[classifier (linguistics)|nominal classifier]]s whereas European languages do not; many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives and verbs (see [[stative verbs]]) or adjectives and nouns, etc. This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties entails that analysis be done for each individual language. Nevertheless the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.[]

==History==
The classification of words into lexical categories is found from the earliest moments in the [[history of linguistics]].[] In the ''[[Nirukta]]'', written in the 5th or 6th century BC, the [[Sanskrit grammarian]] [[Yāska]] defined four main categories of words:[]

# nāma – [[noun]]s or substantives
# ākhyāta – [[verb]]s
# upasarga – pre-verbs or [[prefix]]es
# nipāta – [[Grammatical particle|particle]]s, invariant words (perhaps [[preposition]]s)
These four were grouped into two large classes: [[inflection|inflected]] (nouns and verbs) and uninflected (pre-verbs and particles).

The [[Tamil language|Tamil grammarian]] [[Tolkappian]] in his work [[Tolkappiyam]] dated variously between 1st CE and 10th CE, classifies words[] in Tamil as
#''peyar'' (noun),
#''vinai'' (verb),
#''idai'' (part of speech which modifies the relationships between verbs and nouns) and
# ''uri'' (word that further qualifies a noun or verb)

A century or two after the work of Nirukta, the [[Classical Greece|Greek]] scholar [[Plato]] wrote in the [[Cratylus (dialogue)|''Cratylus'' dialog]] that "... sentences are, I conceive, a combination of verbs [''rhēma''] and nouns [''ónoma'']".[] Another class, "conjunctions" (covering [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and the [[article (grammar)|article]]), was later added by [[Aristotle]].

By the end of the 2nd century BC, the classification scheme had been expanded into eight categories, seen in the ''[[Art of Grammar]]'' (Τέχνη Γραμματική) :

# [[Noun]]: a part of speech inflected for case, signifying a concrete or abstract entity
# [[Verb]]: a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone
# [[Participle]]: a part of speech sharing the features of the verb and the noun
# [[Interjection]]: a part of speech expressing emotion alone
# [[Pronoun]]: a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for person
# [[Preposition]]: a part of speech placed before other words in composition and in syntax
# [[Adverb]]: a part of speech without inflection, in modification of or in addition to a verb
# [[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]]: a part of speech binding together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation

The [[Latin grammar]]ian [[Priscian]] ([[floruit|fl.]] [[500 CE]]) modified the above eightfold system, substituting "[[interjection]]" for "article". It wasn't until 1767 that the [[adjective]] was taken as a separate class.[]

Traditional English grammar is patterned after the European tradition above, and is still taught in schools and used in [[dictionaries]]. It names eight parts of speech: [[noun]], [[verb]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], [[pronoun]], [[preposition]], [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]], and [[interjection]] (sometimes called an exclamation).

==Controversies==
Since the Greek grammarians of 2nd century BCE, parts of speech have been defined by [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]], [[syntax|syntactic]] and [[semantics|semantic]] criteria. However, there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that can apply to all languages, or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme should be based.

[[Linguists]] recognize that the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and artificial.[] For example, "adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,[]

==English==
[[image:EnglishGrammarCategories.png|thumb|A tree diagram of English categories in accordance with modern linguistic studies]]
[[English language|English]] words have been traditionally classified into eight lexical categories, or parts of speech (and are still done so in most dictionaries):
*Noun: any abstract or concrete entity
*Pronoun: any substitute for a noun or noun phrase
*Adjective: any qualifier of a noun
*Verb: any action or state of being
*Adverb: any qualifier of an adjective, verb, or other adverb
*Preposition: any establisher of relation and syntactic context
*Conjunction: any syntactic connector
*Interjection: any emotional greeting (or "exclamation")
Although these are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and sub-categories based on function.

The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are labelled form classes as well. This is because prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term form is used because it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.[]

Neither written nor spoken English generally [[marker (linguistics)|marks]] words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be understood in the context of the sentence. Words like ''neigh'', ''break'', ''outlaw'', ''laser'', ''microwave'' and ''telephone'' might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although ''-ly'' is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in ''-ly'' (''-wise'' is another common adverb marker) and not all words ending in ''-ly'' are adverbs. For instance, ''tomorrow'', ''fast'', ''very'' can all be adverbs, while ''early'', ''friendly'', ''ugly'' are all adjectives (though ''early'' can also function as an adverb).

In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in "We must look to the ''hows'' and not just the ''whys''" or "Miranda was ''to-ing and fro-ing'' and not paying attention".

==Functional classification==
The study of [[linguistics]] has expanded the understanding of lexical categories in various languages and allowed for better classifying words by function. Common lexical categories in English by function may include:
* '''[[Open word classes]]:'''
**[[adjective]]s
**[[adverb]]s
**[[noun]]s
**[[verb]]s (except [[auxiliary verb]]s)
** [[Interjection]]s

* '''[[Closed word classes]]:'''
**[[auxiliary verb]]s
**[[clitic]]s
**[[coverb]]s
**[[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]s
**[[determiner (class)|determiner]]s ([[article (grammar)|article]]s, [[quantifier]]s, [[demonstrative adjective]]s, and [[possessive adjective]]s)
**[[grammatical particle|particle]]s
**[[measure word]]s
**[[adposition]]s (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
**[[preverb]]s
**[[pronoun]]s
**[[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]]s
**[[Names of numbers in English#Cardinal numbers|cardinal numbers]]

==See also==
* [[Grammatical category]]
* [[Part-of-speech tagging]]
* [[Quirky subject]]
* [[Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging]]
* [[Syntactic category]]

==References==

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|part of speech}}
{{Wiktionary|Category:Parts of speech}}
*[http://wakish.info/the-eight-classes-grouping-all-words-in-the-english-language/ The Eight Classes Grouping All Words In The English Language]
*[http://wakish.info/how-to-classify-words-into-parts-of-speech/ How To Classify Words Into Parts Of Speech]
*[http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/partsp.html The parts of speech]
*[http://www.quia.com/jg/65832.html Parts of Speech Activities at Quia]
*[http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/ Guide to Grammar and Writing]
*[http://email.eva.mpg.de/~haspelmt/2001wcl.pdf Martin Haspelmath. 2001. "Word Classes and Parts of Speech." In: Baltes, Paul B. & Smelser, Neil J. (eds.) ''International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences''. Amsterdam: Pergamon, 16538-16545.] (PDF)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lexical Category}}
[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Parts of speech| ]]

←Older revision		Revision as of 07:44, 5 March 2016
Line 88:		Line 88:
	* [[Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging]]		* [[Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging]]
	* [[Syntactic category]]		* [[Syntactic category]]
-
-	[[Image:paypal.jpg\|center\|150px\|thumb\|[http://textus-receptus.com/donate.html Please click here to donate to Textus Receptus. All money donated will go to pay staff to add information to the page and server costs]]]

	==References==		==References==

←Older revision		Revision as of 07:13, 5 March 2016
Line 89:		Line 89:
	* [[Syntactic category]]		* [[Syntactic category]]

-	[[Image:paypal.jpg\|~~right~~\|150px\|thumb\|[http://textus-receptus.com/donate.html ~~Click~~ here to donate to TR]]]	+	[[Image:paypal.jpg\|center\|150px\|thumb\|[http://textus-receptus.com/donate.html Please click here to donate to Textus Receptus. All money donated will go to pay staff to add information to the page and server costs]]]

	==References==		==References==

←Older revision		Revision as of 06:58, 5 March 2016
Line 88:		Line 88:
	* [[Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging]]		* [[Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging]]
	* [[Syntactic category]]		* [[Syntactic category]]
		+
		+	[[Image:paypal.jpg\|right\|150px\|thumb\|[http://textus-receptus.com/donate.html Click here to donate to TR]]]

	==References==		==References==